INTRODUCTION
Since the inception of Pakistan in 1947, the national framework has been weak.
Islamic ideology which was the mobilizing force during freedom movement could not
maintain its pace. The intricacy was due to the conflicting socio-political fiber of
Pakistani society, which was not handled properly. The diverse fiber of Pakistani
society was based on its ethnic composition. The five indigenous ethnic groups were
Punjabi, Baloch, Sindhi, Pakhtun and Bengalis. The state adopted an authoritarian
policy to expand and consolidate its power and position. In response to authoritarian
policy, the Bangalis started a movement for the preservation of their identity. The
state used its authoritarian mode for the creation of national integration but failed and
resultantly Bangladesh was created. The effort to quell ethnic movement for the
creation of national integration was not fruitful. East Pakistan became Bangladesh,
but the state did not learn any lesson and continued its policies. At present the state
of Pakistan consists of Baloch, Pakhtoon, Punjabi and Sindhi ethnic group while
Mahajir and Saraiki groups have a claim of fifth nationality of Pakistan and they are
struggling for it.
In the post 1971 period, the issue of nation building and national integration is
further highlighted by the state authorities. They fail to co-opt a strategy to create
unity in diversity. Instead of adopting the strategy of empowering ethnic groups and
giving them maximum share in politics and economics, coercive measures have
been used to crush the anti state sentiments. Consequently ethnic groups are not
only involved in inter ethnic conflict but developed serious concerns with the state.
Theoretically the main focus of this thesis is on ethnicity, politics of ethnicity
and national integration. The concepts are elaborated in detail with the help of
existing literature in the disciplines of political science, international relations and
political sociology.
In the debate of ethnicity, the three approaches primordialism,
instrumentalism and social constructivism will be discussed in detail. While
discussing these approaches the researcher has developed the argument that
though the primordial basis of ethnicity is not fluid in nature yet, it could be influenced
politically. The second concept is politics of ethnicity and the main argument is that,
state has a central role in its evolution. It is also explained that ethnic groups are
mobilized for the persuasion of their demands and one of the major demands is to
get political power. In politics of ethnicity, political power includes adequate
representation in political and administrative institution’s share and control over local
resources and use of particular language for communication. If state denies these
demands, conflict develops and ethnic groups are politicized. To strengthen this
argument the work of Paul Brass is discussed in detail, who believes that the political
and economic conditions determine the salience of ethnicity. In his argument ethnic
elites perform instrumental role in ethnic mobilization. A theoretical model has been
drawn in this regard to show how ethnicity is politicized and which factors enhance
the conflictual situation. Another model related to the life cycle of ethnic conflict with
state is also designed. These two models are drawn after studying various societies
including Pakistan, where ethnic groups have serious concerns with state. The third
major concept is national integration. It is an evolving pursue in all the post colonial
divided societies. The researcher has incorporated different approaches related to
national integration.
For this research four variables have been drawn from the existing literature
to measure the threat for national integration. These are:
The scholars of politics of ethnicity have written about the importance of
leadership. Strong and charismatic leadership has the ability to convince its
community for the pursuance of ethnic objectives. In the three studies it is
monitored that how ethnic leadership is performing its role.
The second variable chosen for this study is the role of middle class. Various
approaches about middle class are incorporated in this study. This variable is
also appropriate in the study because in the catastrophe of East Pakistan in
1970’s, middle class mobility was one of the most important reasons.
Role of state in enhancing ethnic politics is also the key argument of the
researcher. Its role is evaluated to measure the threat for national integration.
The last variable, chosen for this particular research is the role of external
involvement in escalation and de-escalation of ethnic conflict. Various
theories have been formulated to show the external linkages of ethnic groups.
In Pakistan’s case, the state has experienced the external involvement in
East Pakistan crisis. Bengalies had developed ties with Indians and with their
support, hamper the process of national integration.
Apart from theoretical debate about national integration and its various techniques
discussed in the literature, the researcher visited Quetta (Balochistan), Karachi
(Sindh) and Multan (Punjab) and conducted interviews and surveys from the Baloch,
Mohajir, and Saraiki ethnic groups which were selected as the case studies for this
research. This survey consisted on two questionnaires. In the first questionnaire
different questions were asked related to the national identity, national integration
and state policies. The sampling frame consisted of 50 students, 40 middle class
professionals (MCP) and 10 politicians from each community. The students of
Masters and M.Phil were chosen. Major reason behind is that the students are part
of the youth who will probably control the future relationship between the state and
society. The middle class is considered the back bone of any society and it is present
in all the ethnic groups. Their effective mobilization is important variable in escalation
and de-escalation of the conflict. The third category belonged to politicians, only
those politicians were selected who remained important office bearer, from each
community. The second questionnaire consisted of comparative questions. The
questions were asked to measure the threat for national integration from the three
case studies. The respondents belonged to the middle class professionals including
teachers, intellectuals, thinkers, poets and researchers. It is also done from Quetta,
Karachi and Multan. Although it was difficult to conduct these surveys from the three
provinces but for the originality of the research it was necessary. Anyhow the results
of this survey further strengthened the main argument of the research.
As for as the selection of the three case studies is concerned there are some
specificities and commonalities among them. The distinction is that the three ethnic
groups belong to diverse social structures. The Baloch belong to a tribal system
having strong territorial association, the Mohajir is an urban based community having
no historical association with any of the territory they are living, and Saraikis
belonged to a purely agrarian society having strong affiliation with their language and
culture. As for as their grievances are concerned, discussed in detail in this research.
Here the most pertinent issue is to discuss the commonalities among these groups.
First commonality is relevant to their lingual association. They consider
language is an important marker of identity and they are often called as
lingual identities.
The three ethnies started their movement for the preservation of specific
identity.
The Baloch, Mohajir and Saraiki’s started their movements in the reaction
of the state policies.
Another factor is that these ethnies do not have any conflict with each
other but they have concerns with state.
The last factor is intra-ethnic division, despite having cultural and lingual
commonality, they are divided on minor issues. The study has revealed
that very often these intra-ethnic conflicts are used by state authorities to
divide the power of ethnic groups.
The main argument of the research is that state performs a key role in the
development of politics of ethnicity. In response to state’s role ethnic groups are
mobilized positively or negatively. So the conflictual situation is created by the state.
The other important thing is that ethnic conflict should not be perceived as a conflict
among or within ethnic groups, but it should be perceived as conflict with the state.
In the present study, ethnic conflict is also studied in a conflictual situation where
state has important role in the formation and de-formation of conflict. In this way
state and government are the words, used interchangeably. Despite the fact, that
many scholars have opted that the state is a set of institutions which exert its power
over society. But the researcher believes that government without state or state
without government cannot perform, both are essential for each other. That is why
both are used identically.
Literature Review
A thought provoking research is conducted about the ethnic origin of nations.
The study has developed a larger debate about the origin of nations. It also
analyzed genealogy of nations, in particular their ethnic roots. The book
basically deals with the primordialist approach of ethnicity. The author
explained various elements governed the ethnic formation. Among them he
discussed the class and ethnies in agrarian societies. He pointed out two
era’s of ethnic formation of a nation. First, the pre-modern era and second is
related to the modern period. Apart from the fact that book is relevant and
helpful in understanding the ethnic origin of nations, it is equally helpful to
understand the politicization of ethnies.
(Smith, D.A (1987). The Ethnic Origin of Nations. Newyork: Basil Black Well
Inc.
A very important research is conducted on nation, nationalism and subnationalism
in “Nations as Zones of Conflict”, different logical arguments have
been given to accept and reject the modernist’s arguments that nations are
based on older ethnic formations, which have crystallized in the process of
conflicts arising from missionary religions, imperial expansion, warfare, long
distance trade and mass migration and colonization. Exposed to multiple
challenges, most ethnicities that survive have layered or multiple past that
may be embedded by several institutions. The writer also criticized
modernist’s conception that nations as invented traditions are capable of
easily overriding pre-existing loyalties. The focus of study is on the point that
a revivalist nationalism crystallizes from the conflict between traditionalism
and modernization. The study rejects the assumption of European and
Christian superiority, revivalism proposed a revolutionary ethnic model of
humanity built on self-actualizing nations. Different cultural conflicts among
sub national groups are also discussed as part of their structure of politics,
economic and social policies, and status of social groups. These conflicts are
discussed in part by the geopolitical position of nations, and in part by the fact
that nations are shaped by several historical legacies.
Hutchinson, J. (2005). Nations as Zones of Conflict. London: Sage
Publications.
A very important piece of work on ethnicity and political identity presents a
comprehensive frame work for studying ethnic policies. The first three
chapters are based on a comprehensive discussion and definition about
ethnicity-primordialism. In discussing “primordialism” the writer highlighted the
concept of ethnicity that held sway through most of the twentieth century.
This primordial understanding of ethnicity has been supplanted by two
different approaches to ethnicity that is named as “instrumentalism” and
“social constructivism”. Instrumentalism views ethnicity as the means to some
specific political end and as such it is focused on the goals of ethnies rather
than the origins. They believe ethnicity is changeable. They also believe on
its deep roots in person’s identity because it is somehow fundamental, but
they disagree on what makes it fundamental: biology, culture or myth. “Social
constructivism” is also theoretical school of ethnicity with a view on the fluid
nature of ethnic identities. It is similar to instrumentalism in that it identifies
the role of political and economic factors in molding ethnicity. However the
point of difference lies in the origins of ethnies. While discussing the
theoretical frame work, the author also made some case studies based on
different attributes of ethnicity. Therefore the case of “Quebec” to illustrate
ethnic conflict that is defined by the issue of language included, and
Yugoslavia to identify a case where ethnic conflict is defined by religion and
culture and so on. The theoretical framework of present study is based on
these theoretical approaches.
Joireman, F. S. (2007). Nationalism and Political Identity. Chennai; Viva
continuum. (South Asian Edition).
Another important work on internal conflicts within the state is presented in
the book “Religious politics and communal violence”; Although, all the
writings in the book are not directly related to the undersigned study, but its
chapter seven ‘Ethnic conflict and Civil Society’, presents a brief theoretical
aspect about ethnicity. The writer explained different terms like ethnic, ethnic
conflict and civil Society in very specific manner.
Wilkinson, I. S (2005). Religious Politics and Communal Violence. (Eds). New
Delhi: Oxford.
One more important work “the Idea of Politics”, presents the theory of
integration. In this study the author discussed different stages from conflict to
integration and then presented the theory of integration. According to the
author, integration is the process unifying a society, tending to transform it
into a harmonious city, based on an order recognized as such by its
members. This study is helpful to understand the theory of integration. It also
gives a brief understanding that how conflicts within state lead towards
violence.
Duverger. M (1978). The Idea of Politics: The Uses of Power in Society.
(translated by Robert North & Ruth Murphy ). London: Methues & Co.
Another important research is conducted on ethnicity and nation building. The
book is important in a sense that it not only discusses the approaches of
ethnicity but provides a critical appraisal on the theme of ethnicity and nation
building. The study poses a broad framework in the first chapter and it is
followed by an overview of the ethnic mosaic of south Asian states. It is also
discussed that how various regimes in South Asian states handled the
challenges of social diversity. The book is more appropriate for the present
study because the research revolves around five case studies regarding their
autonomist-secessionist manifestation of secessionist movements. Finally,
the study blends the major strands of the relationship between government,
society and economy focuses on the causes which lead to the containment of
ethnicity in some cases and its exacerbation in others .
Phadnis, U; Ganguly. R (2001). Ethnicity and Nation Building in South Asia.
New Dehli: Sage Publications.
A very important contribution is made by Paul. R. Brass(1991). His research
is based on the theoretical extension of ethnicity and nationalism. The study
focuses the issue that there is nothing inevitable about the rise of ethnic
identity and its transformation into nationalism among the diverse peoples of
the contemporary world. Rather the conversion of cultural differences in
bases for political differentiation between people, arise only under specific
circumstances which need to be identified clearly. The author also makes a
point that elite competition is the basic dynamic that precipitates ethnic
conflict under specific conditions, which arise from the broader political and
economic environments rather than from the cultural values of the ethnic
group. Brass confirms that the theory is consistent with the assumption that
ethnic identity is itself a variable, rather than a fixed or given disposition. It
also discussed the critical role of elite in the relationship with state. A critical
importance of the relationships established between particular elite groups
and state authorities is elaborated in this book.
Brass, R. P. (1991). Ethnicity and Nationalism: Theory and Practice. New
Dehli: Sage Publication Inc.
Another seminal work is edited by Edward Mortimer and Robert Fine(1999).
The study is helpful in understanding the concepts of nation, nationalism, and
national identity. Two chapters ethnicity, its making and nature of ethnicity are
the most relevant to the present research. While defining these concepts, the
study continues to provoke debate about the relationship between ethnicity,
national identity and state sovereignty.
Mortimer. E; Fine, R. (1999). People, Nation & State. (Eds). Newyork: I.B.
Tauris.
Another significant piece of work is related to ethnicity, nationalism, its
evolution and nationalist movements and ethnic politics. The study presents
its argument in the perspective of Western World, in the Communist World
and in developing world of South Africa and the Middle East. The book has
incorporated the changes occurred in the world, with reference to
disintegration of USSR, creating the supra national organizations etc. Within
these developments the researcher introduced the relationship between
ethnic politics and national integration.
Kellas, G.J. (1998). The Politics of Nationalism and Ethnicity. (2nd edition).
London: Macmillan Press Ltd.
In another research the author, Wieland (2006) has discussed the
politicization of ethnic groups. He selected Bosnia, India and Pakistan and
made a comparative analysis of nation building in the Balkans and the Indian
sub-continent. This study focuses on Muslims of Balkans and Indian subcontinent.
The researcher tried to find out the intra-ethnic conflict within an
ideological state having one nation on the basis of religion. Though the
research is not directly relevant with the present study, even then it provides
sound literature about the origin of Indian Muslim nation. The author
contributed in a sense that it provides a detailed logical discussion about
ethnic groups, ethnicity, subjective and objective concept of nation and
nationalism.
Wieland, C. (2006). Nation States by accident. New Delhi: Manohar.
A significant piece of writing about ethnic conflict is edited by Kenneth
Christie (1998). In this research, theories of ethnicity are incorporated with
the politics of ethnicity. The collection of article covers different dimensions of
ethnic conflict. The theme presented in this book exposes that ethnic unrest
and communal strife is fairly resilient not only in the third world but also in
developed societies in the 20th century. The book also focuses ethnic conflict
in tribal politics.
Christie, K. (1998). Ethnic Conflict, Tribal Politics; A Global Perspective.
Surrey: Curzon.
Another vital research on the subject of ethnicity, and its attributes is edited
by Hutchinson and Smith. The book not only incorporated a wide variety of
debate about numerous features of ethnicity but it also discusses the issue of
politics of ethnicity. Under this debate various factors are highlighted, which
becomes reason of ethnic politics.
Hutchinson, J & Smith, D. A. (1996). Ethnicity. Newyork: Oxford.
A very important study is made on ethnic conflict in 2004. The book is
important because various theoretical bases have been associated with
ethnic conflict. The basic approach is to understand the internationalization of
ethnic conflict in different regional contexts that integrates international
relations and comparative analysis. Four explanatory frameworks are also
used that contribute to the diffusion and the escalation of ethnic conflicts in
plural societies. The author examined two types of ethnic conflicts. One, in
which conflict in one country directly affect neighboring countries and second,
in which non state actors are involved or outside ethnic groups are involved
in the internal conflicts. Different explanatory frameworks in the escalation
and diffusion of interstate ethnic conflict are also helpful for the present study.
Lobell, E. S & Maucerri, P. (2004). Ethnic Conflict and International Politics:
Explaining Diffusion and Escalation. Newyork: Palgrav Macmillan.
To understand the politics of third world countries, B. C Smith’s (2003)
contribution has much importance. Though the book presents the theories of
political change and development in the third world, it also highlights the
social structure of their society. This part of the book “Nationalism and
Secession” is directly relevant to the present study. In this part the role of the
middle class is discussed appropriately under various theoretical
perspectives.
Smith, C. B (2003). Understanding Third World Politics. Newyork: Palgrave
Macmillan.
A very useful book about south Asian ethnic movement discusses its various
forms. The nature of ethnic conflict in Pakistan is highlighted by various
articles. Veron Hewitt (1998) explains the provincial identity of Baluchistan.
While Iftikhar Malik talked about ethnic conflict in Sindh. Both the studies are
helpful to understand the main actors behind these conflicts. In both the
cases of Sindh and Balochistan the articles throw light on the state’s
unnecessary, painful and coercive role.
(Mitra, K. S. and Lewis, A. R (1998). Sub National Movements in South Asia.
New Dehli: Segment Books.
Another useful book that is most relevant with the present research is about
conflict and peacemaking in multiethnic societies. The volume is divided in to
five parts and three segments. First part gives a review of the history and
nomenclature of ethnic conflict with special perspective from developed West
and traditional societies of the Third World. Then it presents a selection of
ways to look at ethnic conflict. Part two to four offers case studies of various
ethnic conflicts. The unique thing is that it is an analytical mix presenting the
attempt to integrate explicitly empirical and theoretical contributions from the
scientific study of individual and group behavior into politics.
Motville, J. (1991). Conflict and Peace Making in Multi-Ethnic Societies.
Newyork: Lexigton Books.
An important work about ethnic conflict is contributed by Esman (2004). The
book is helpful to understand the origin of ethnic conflict while explaining the
scope of ethnic pluralism and the varieties and complexities of ethnic conflict
in the contemporary world. Principal terms and concepts are also evaluated.
The book has explored the sources of ethnic pluralism, the processes,
peaceful and violent, by which ethnic communities are mobilized to protect
and promote their collective interests. The most readable part is chapter five
which discusses various roles that governments play in generating and
managing ethnic conflict and the transnational and international forces that
impinge on ethnic encounters.
Esman, J. M (2004). An Introduction to Ethnic Conflict. Cambridge: Polity
Press.
Another significant work is done by Staven Hagen. The book discusses
ethnic conflict in various plural societies. In the first chapter, problem of ethnic
conflict is discussed. While explaining its theoretical basis, the crucial issues
of ethnic identity formation are also outlined in detail. It is also elaborated that
how ethnic conflicts affect socio-politico and economic life. As all the
domestic factors, influenced by ethnic conflicts are discussed, the
international implications of ethnic conflicts are not ignored. The book gives a
comparative view that how some strategies of the state are failed, and some
become successful. Apart from discussing the nature of conflict of various
countries located in different continents, Pakistan is also a major part of this
study.
Staven Hagen, R. (1996). Ethnic Conflict and the Nation State. London:
Macmillan Press.
Another valuable work is presented about ethnic conflict regulations in India
and Pakistan. The book presents a comparative study about India and
Pakistan. It is explaining the federal design, which is especially made for
plural states. The author discussed in detail the problems of federalism in
South Asia. It gives a comparative picture of federalism in India and Pakistan
with constitutional methods adopted by both the states. The book gives
comprehensive analysis about instability and stability in the two main states
of South Asia. The book not only discusses the historical factors which shape
up the present picture, it also explains the future prospects for both the states
that how the conflicts could be avoided.
Adeney, K. (2007). Federalism and Ethnic Conflict Regulations in India and
Pakistan. Newyork: Palgrave macmillan.
A research is conducted in which the author is of the view that the sense of a
common ethnicity, history, language, culture and a satisfactory experience of
living together in a political union, contribute to the development of
nationhood among people. The uniting potential of these factors, as they
operate in Pakistan are examined in this book. The book also emphasized on
the performance of political system and the role of governing elite, either they
are performing in a democratic order or not. This scholarly search also
explaines the historical factor of ethnicity that Pakistani’s is the product of
many foreign and local ethnic influences. There is an aboriginal and then a
Dravidian substratum in the ethnic composition of each of the main regional
groups. In spite of this, the author discusses different attributes of ethnic
politics which divided the nation into different ethnies. Some ways and means
are also suggested to promote national unity. Two rival theories of the
relationship between the political system and national unity have been
discussed in the book. One is advanced by the ruling elites, including the civil
and military bureaucracies. The focus of this approach is on “Strong Center”
for the creation and promotion of national unity. The other theory is supported
by the counter elites, who manage “group feeling” in their respective territory.
They rejected the elite’s prescription as antithetical to national unity and
integrity. They wish to reduce the authority of elites. They maintained that
only a democratic and federal polity can create the political peace and mutual
trust. The book is helpful for present study.
Syed, A. (1984). Pakistan: Islam, Politics and National Solidarity. Lahore:
Vanguard.
On the subject of ethnicity and nationalism with reference to South Asia and
Europe a very important study has been made by Area Study Centre,
University of Karachi. The book covers different aspects of nationalism in
different parts of the world but the writings related to ethnic politics in
Pakistan are helpful for the present study. The authors discussed economic
and political dimensions of ethnicity, and the growth of Mohajir and Baloch
ethnies. They also integrated the problem of ethnicity, with Pakistan’s
national unity and security. They argued that ethnic feelings provide a fertile
ground for the assertion of centrifugal forces.
Tahir, A. N (1997). The Politics of Ethnicity and Nationalism in Europe and
South Asia (eds). University of Karachi and Hanns Seidel Foundation.
A very significant work about the futility of ethnic politics in Pakistan is done
by Feroz Ahmad (1999). He discusses about different ethnic groups in
Pakistan, the evolution of their group identity and the social and economic
conditions of the state in which they interact. Researcher gave a detailed
analysis of the time when Pakistan came into being, and the challenges of
identity, the nascent state faced. The explosive nature of Pakistan’s ethnic
problem and the role of state has been underlined while discussing the East
Pakistan crisis, armed resistance in Baluchistan, and situation in interior
Sindh. The author highlighted the problems faced by ethnic groups in
Pakistan and the factors which are potential threat to national integration.
Ahmed, F (1999). Ethnicity and Politics in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford.
Another very important study about Pakistan failure to national integration
gave a thought provoking analysis about the policies adopted by Central
ruling elite in Pakistan after its emergence. The author argued that due to
discriminatory policies of central government national integration became an
issue in Pakistan’s politics. According to her, Pakistan emerged as a nation
state but failed to become one nation.
Jahan, R (1972). Pakistan, Failure in National Integration. Newyork:
Columbia University Press.
Another important book “Contemporary problems of Pakistan”, is based on
different articles written by famous political scholars who are keen observers
of Pakistan politics. The book addresses different political problems of
Pakistan including the problem of ethnicity. One of the articles in this book
presents a detailed and critical analysis of Sindhi - Mohajirs rift in Sindh. This
article is helpful to understand the origin of Mohajirs in Sindh, their
contributions in the development of post independence Sindh and the role of
the political leaders, bureaucrats and the military as well.
Korson, H. J. (1993). Contemporary Problems of Pakistan. (Eds). Colorado:
West view Press.
The concepts of regionalism and the status of ethnic minorities in Pakistan
are the focus of the research conducted by Surrendra Singh. The author gave
an overview of the politics of regionalism in Pakistan. The study has its focus
on the Sindh province but a brief description is also made about other regions
of Pakistan, especially the Punjabi region, the Pakhtoon regionalism, and the
Balochi regionalism. The scholarly work also presented a brief analysis of
East Pakistan Crisis, and the establishment of Bangladesh. This research is
helpful for present study in a way that how the different governments respond
to the demands of the ethnic communities of the mentioned regions, and the
regional politics with the inspiration of regional identity is dangerous for
Pakistan’s national integration.
(Singh, S. (2003). Politics of Regionalism in Pakistan, A Study of Sindh
Province. New Delhi: Kalinga Publications.
The ethnic composition of Pakistan and its different languages are the subject
of another study conducted by Yuri V Gankovsky (1971). The Author briefly
discussed the principal dialects of different regions of Pakistan.
Gankovsky, V. Y. (1971). The People of Pakistan: An Ethnic History,
Translated from Russian by Igore Gavrilov. Lahore: People Publishing
House.
A very useful and important work is done by Tariq Rehman about languages
and their political implications in Pakistan. The scholarly work started with the
theoretical preliminaries where author defines key concepts such as
“language planning”, its connection with “power” and “politics”, “identityconstruction”
and “Ethnicity”. The second important portion is related with the
British language policies and it is expressed that language was an important
tool of imperialism. After discussing in detail the imperialistic policies of
Britishers, in the proceeding chapters the author made a detail account of
different important language movements in Pakistan. The author concludes
that modernity, introduced by British government brought about radical
changes in language policies and distribution of power. The author is also of
the view that language is the heart of ethnicity. It was a major symbol of
ethnicity for Bengalis, while it was important, though not the sole symbol, for
the Mohajirs. Bengali language based ethnicity was strong enough to
challenge the domination of the West Pakistan elite and contributed to the
creation of Bangladesh. After a detailed account of merits and demerits of
language based ethnic movement the writer concludes that language policies
are so intimately related with politics that, if they change, the political map of
Pakistan will also change.
Rehman, T (2006). Language and politics in Pakistan. Karachi: Oxford.
Ethnic conflict in Pakistan is also highlighted in another book, written in the
perspective of regional security, ethnicity and governance. The contributors of
this book discuss the ways in which a number of South Asian countries ,
having experienced colonial rule and achieved independence, sought to
establish strong centralized states and bureaucratic modes of governance,
but whose current history beset with problems. The book analyses some of
the implications of this general problems, focusing on the issues of
governance and the nature of state in post colonial societies.
Richter, J and Wagner, Christian. (1998) Regional Security: Ethnicity and
Governance in South Asia. New Dehli: Manohar.
A very valuable work about ethnic politics in Pakistan has seen in Adeel
Khan’s(2005) book. The book explains various issues related to ethnic
conflict in Pakistan. The book presents a clear picture of centre state
relationship and the oppressively centralizing policies of the Pakistani state.
He discusses in detail the absence of representative rule, provincial
autonomy, and ethnic and regional discontent. The book deals ethnic conflict
as a political issue, and a struggle for power between the dominant and the
non dominant.
Khan, A. (2005). Politics of Identity: Ethnic Nationalism and the State in
Pkaistan. New Dehli: Sage Publications.
A very important piece of work is presented by Shaheen and Javed Rehman.
The book presents a detailed analysis about indigenous peoples and ethnic
minorities in Pakistan from a legal perspective. The book proposes to compile
and analyze the legislation, subsidiary legislation and guidelines that affect
the rights of ethnic minorities at both national and provincial level.
Ali, S. S & Rehman, J. (2001). Indigenous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities of
Pakistan. London: Curzon.
An important work about Pakistan discusses in ideological basis of its
creation. The book expresses the importance of a positive national identity. It
is explained in a way that Pakistan appears to be an unachieved nation
precisely because of the persistence of ethnic identities which may even be
described as nationalities. The author has edited a variety of articles written
in the perspective of Pakistan’s ethnic mosaic.
Jaffrelot, C. (2005). Pakistan: Nation, Nationalism and the State. NewDehli:
Lordson Publishers.
An autobiography of Khan of Kalat state is also vital for the study. The author
reminded the part of every event in pre and post independence period,
unfolded many secrets for the future researchers. It gives a detailed account
of accession of Kalat state with Pakistan. Though the book describes only
single point of view, even then it is useful for the study of Baloch ethnie.
Baloch, A. Y. K M. (2009). (2nd impression). Inside Balochistan. Karachi:
Royal Book Co.
To understand the social construction of Baloch Society in post 1947 period,
Mehmood Ali Shah’s book is also pertinent to study. The study brings step by
step development of local government system in Balochistan. The book also
focuses on the role and influence of these systems upon tribal and less
developed society of Balochistan. It also highlights the socio-economic
structure and the administrative system of the tribes belonging to different
ethnic groups.
Shah, A. M. (1994). Sardari, Jirga and Local Government System in
Balochistan. Lahore : Idara-e-Tadrees.
An important contribution towards socio-cultural and political aspect of
Balochistan is written by Kundi. The book provides an interesting
analysis/description of many socio-cultural, political, economic and
administrative aspects of Balochistan. The book comprises of number of
articles published in the leading national English dailies. Many of them
highlight the ancient and historical legacies of the province having been
totally ignored in press.
Kundi, A. M (1994). Balochistan; A Socio-Cultural and Political Analysis.
Quetta: Qasim Printers.
Another very important work about Balochistan highlights the strategic and
political importance of Balochistan for the security of Pakistan. The study has
incorporated the consequences of Soviet invasion in Afghanistan in 1979. It
also tries to explore various options available to Pakistan and probable
courses of action open to it after the signing of the Geneva accord. While
discussing the geostrategic significance of Balochistan the author argued that
since Balochistan is a link between South Asia, the Middle East and Central
Asia, it enhances the geo-political importance of Pakistan.
Ahmad, I.S. (1992). Balochistan: Its Strategic Importance. Karachi: Royal
Book Co.
A very important work on Balochistan’s historical and political process is done
by A.B Awan (1995). The book is written in two parts. First part is mainly
descriptive, with historical background for the main narrative. Part two relates
to post-independence Pakistan and the evolution of political process during
this time in Balochistan. The book discusses the nature of Baloch ethnic
group. Awan beautifully explained the Baloch struggle from a nomadic life
style to the consequences of British rule which added new dimension. After
British period the book describes the evolution of political events and
processes in Pakistan. Apart from discussing domestic variables, the book
also highlighted the influence of Russia, on neighboring Afghanistan,
militarily, politically, economically and culturally.
Awan, B. A(1995).Balochistan: Historical and Political Process. Landon; New
Century Publishers.
Selig S. Harrison’s (1998) contribution about Baloch nationalism is also vital
for present study. The book is a Baloch centered and treats Baloch
nationalism as a dynamic, self contained phenomenon worthy of attention in
its own right rather than as a subordinate aspect of the larger problems of
Pakistani and Iranian nationalism. The book examines Pakistani and Iranian
attitudes relating specifically to the Baloch and their demands, focusing in
particular on how these attitudes condition the Baloch movement and affect
the prospects for compromise between the Baloch and Islamabad. The book
also explains the principal grievances, underlying Baloch demands for
autonomy and the possible elements of an accommodation between the
Baloch and Islamabad. .
Harrison, S. S (1981). In Afghanistan’s Shadow: Baloch Nationalism and
Soviet Temptation. Newyork; Carneige Endowment.
A Very informative work about the situation of Urban Sindh especially Karachi
has been given by ABS Jafri (1996). The writer categorized the book into four
sections with a relatively brief and crisp introduction to the Karachi
phenomenon. The writer has adopted an unorthodox strategy to refresh the
memory of the reader with pertinent developments, events and facts which
have a direct and indirect relation with Karachi crisis. A chronology of events
is also there to cover the period from 1990 to 1994. The work is helpful for the
study because the author used actual events, statements, statistics and facts.
In the second section of the book different comments on major events has
been collected and the third section is a detailed and thoroughly documented
appendix which provided supporting evidence for the writings of first two
section.